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Understanding Human Behaviour In Emergencies | ||
This text appears by permission of Odyssey Training Limited |
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| Setting The
Scene Introduction |
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These pages are about human behaviour in emergencies.  Their
purpose is to provide everyone who has a responsibility
for passenger safety onboard
liners and ferries (i.e. everyone) with a clear
understanding of the issues which affect the way people
respond under pressure and how that knowledge might be
more effectively applied in situations where it is
necessary to influence individuals, marshal groups and
manage crowds.The issues explored include:  the role that crowds play in
emergencies the four phases of an emergency the emotional and psychological
impact the variability of human
behaviour the impact of stress on decision
making the requirement for information
and communication the importance of leadership in
emergenciesFor many of us an emergency can be simply defined as:  an event, or
set of events, which disrupts our normal day to day
routineIt can erupt suddenly, or develop over some considerable time. It can also result in damage to the physical environment and people, and possibly lead to loss of life. Types of emergencies and their cause vary considerably, and no two are exactly the same. Some, like acts of war or terrorism, are man-made. Others can arise through natural causes, human error, and systems or machinery failure. The importance of these issues to the shipping industry lies in the fact that the cruise sector, for instance, is growing fast. In 1970 cruise ships carried 0.5 million people. By 1989 this had increased to 3.7 million, and continues to rise with forecasts predicting 7 million passengers in the year 2000. In the very near future the new generation of cruise liners will carry numbers of passengers and crew similar to those found in small towns and, in addition to the cruise sector, a large number of ferries transport millions of passengers each year in the short sea trades. |
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| The STCW Convention | |||
| In spite of a good safety record, accidents and major disasters do happen, and in acknowledging the importance of behavioural issues Resolution 5 of the 1995 Conference of Parties to the 1978 STCW Convention invited: | |||
| 'the International Maritime Organisation to develop, as a matter of urgency, detailed provisions on the training of personnel on ro-ro passenger ships in crisis management and human behaviour, for possible inclusion in the STCW Code.' | |||
Resolution 6 invited: |
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| 'Parties to the 1978 STCW Convention to consider applying voluntarily, to personnel serving on passenger ships, the relevant training provisions of regulation A-V/2'.(A-V/3) | |||
Further, the STCW Code sets out minimum requirements for the training of personnel, who are designated duties on muster lists which include assisting passengers in emergency situations, in 'crowd management' (STCW 95, A-V/2 para. 1). The requirements for STCW '95 A-V/2 and A-V/3 include, but are not limited to, the following areas relating directly to human behaviour and crowd management: |
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| the ability to give clear & reassuring
orders dealing with
people's special needs keeping
order, reducing and avoiding panic |
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In addition, the Code calls for personnel who have responsibility for the safety of passengers in emergency situations, to follow approved training in crisis management and human behaviour which includes, but is not limited to: |
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| assessing the situation and providing an
effective response leading and
directing others identifying
signs & symptoms of excessive personal stress, and
the stress response to others understanding
that stress can affect performance and the ability to act being aware
of the reaction patterns of passengers and other
personnel in emergencies recognising
specific behaviours of passengers and other personnel appreciating
the possible problems of panic resulting from families
being separated understanding
the importance of clear and concise instructions and
reports, exchange of information and feedback communicating
instructions for action to passengers and others |
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Style of leadership |
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| The art of effective leadership is based on one's
ability to be totally flexible and to adapt one's
approach, or style, to suit a particular situation or set
of circumstances. A natural leader might be able to do this in an instant whereas most of us will need to think before deciding whether to adopt an autocratic style, a democratic style, or something in between. |
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 An autocratic style has been
referred to in management text as Theory X A democratic style has been referred to as
theory Y |
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'X' should be seen as one extreme style, and can be remembered as the sign a seaman uses to indicate that something is finished, or made fast; crossed fore-arms. In other words 'the decision has been made' and there is no room for discussion. As a letter, X is closed. 'Y' should be seen as the other end of leadership style and can be remembered as an approach that invites the question 'why?'. 'Y' is an open letter, and provides the opportunity for debate. Where you pitch your style will depend on the task in hand, the environment you are operating in and the people involved, including their preferences, their understanding of the situation and, of course, the time you have available. |
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| Power | |||
| Power is the resource that enables a leader to
influence individuals and groups to direct their efforts
towards the achievement of an objective. A number of
different power bases exist: Power base 1 - Coercive power induces compliance, rather than commitment, by removing options and motivating people to act through fear of an unwanted outcome such as punishment, pain, injury or death. |
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| Example: 'We must evacuate this space now or the spreading fire will trap us.' | |||
| See also: 'Fires in
Ships' Power base 2 - Connection power is based on the leader's connection with influential or important people. |
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| Example: 'The captain has asked me to relay this message to you...' | |||
Power base 3 - Expert power is related to the leader's special knowledge and skills and it can be used very effectively to influence those who do not have the knowledge and skills themselves. People respect expertise and this helps to gain compliance. |
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| Example: 'Attention everybody, I am the lifeboat coxswain. I'm going to explain exactly what is going to happen during the launch and what I want you all to do for me.' | |||
Power base 4 - Information power is available to the leader who has information that other people need or want. |
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| Example: 'Attention please, we have to move aft. My information is that the port side alleyway is the safest route.' | |||
Power base 5 - Position power is relative to the level of authority or rank the leader holds and it is usually legitimised by some form of disciplinary code. It creates a situation where the leader has the right to command and followers have an obligation to obey. |
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| Example: 'Ladies and Gentlemen, this is the Captain speaking. If I can have your attention for a few moments, I would like to bring you up to date with the situation. Firstly, I would ask you to remain calmly at your muster stations and follow the instructions of my crew...' | |||
Power base 6 - Personal power is based on the leader's inherent qualities such as charm, charisma, integrity, courage, honesty, decisiveness and bearing. In the end, it is the person's liking and admiration for the leader that will determine the level of commitment and compliance. |
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| Example: 'Come on everyone, if we can believe in ourselves I know that we can get through this thing together.' | |||
Power base 7 - Reward power is based on the leader's ability to give his followers some material or monetary reward. It can be seen as a form of coercive power, but is related more to gaining a positive outcome than to avoiding a negative one. |
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| Example: 'If you follow my instructions and we get through this OK, the beers are on me.' | |||
Taking Action |
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| Decisions on what action to take will never be easy
as no one can predict in advance what action should be
taken to deal most effectively with an individual, group
or crowd in an emergency. As an example, no one has the right to suggest that the best way to deal with a particular situation is to use an autocratic style and coercive power whilst waving a flag and sitting on the shoulders of the tallest person in the room. There are no right or wrong answers, there is only a 'best fit' solution based on a complete analysis of the situation one finds oneself in at a given time. |
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